Parkinson’s Disease Essay - 1446 Words

Parkinson’s Disease is known as one of the most common progressive and chronic neurodegenerative disorders. It belongs to a group of conditions known as movement disorders. Parkinson disease is a component of hypokinetic disorder because it causes a decreased in bodily movement. It affects people who are usually over the age of 50. It can impair an individual motor as well as non-motor function. Some of the primary symptoms of Parkinson’s disease are characterized by tremors or trembling in hands, legs and arms. In early symptoms the tremor can be unilateral, appearing in one side of body but progression in the disease can cause it to spread to both sides; rigidity or a resistant to movement affects most people with Parkinson’s disease,†¦show more content†¦Dopamine is a brain chemical/Neurotransmitter that work as messenger signal between the Substantia Nigra to the next relay station of the brain, the corpus striatum which helps to produce smooth coord inate movement and also plays a major role to help control muscle’s movement. With Parkinson’s disease, the brain cells that produce dopamine slowly die, which lead to decrease production of Dopamine. The loss of dopamine causes abnormal nerve firing with brain and the cells that control muscle’s movement by sending the messages to the muscles; due to this it becomes really hard to control muscles movement and cause tremors and various other symptoms such as rigidity and difficulty walking and performing daily tasks. Dopamine is not the only neurotransmitter involved in Parkinson’s Disease. Norepinephrine is very relatively close to dopamine and is also involved in Parkinson’s Disease. Individuals with Parkinson’s Disease have loss of nerve ending that produce norepinephrine. Norepinephrine is a major neurotransmitter for sympathetic nervous system, which control many autonomic functions of our body; it causes increase in blood pressure and heart rate. Loss of norepinephrine can help us explain the non-motor symptoms associated with Parkinson’s Disease such as fatigue, decrease in gastric stability and disruption in cognition. Parkinson’s Disease can be hereditaryShow MoreRelatedThe Parkinsons Disease1596 Words   |  6 PagesMany people around the world today suffer from Parkinson’s disease and other movement disorders. A movement disorder is a disorder impairing the speed, fluency, quality, and ease of movement. There are many types of movement disorders such as impaired fluency and speed of movement (dyskinesia), excessive movements (hyperkinesia), and slurred movements (hypokinesia). Some types of movement disorders are ataxia, a lack of coordination, Huntingtons disease, multiple system atrophies, myoclonus, briefRead MoreThe Parkinsons Disease761 Words   |  3 PagesMathur states that â€Å"Genetics loads the gun, environment pulls the trigger† (Mathur). Parkinson’s Disease (PD) exhibits this pattern, with the vast majority of PD cases being idiopathic, likely the result of combined genetic and environmental factors. While many researchers previously sought symptom-specific treatment, recent breakthroughs open the door for the discovery of genetic and environmental causes so that disease prevention, and even reversal, emerge as viable possibilities. Recent research demonstratesRead More Parkinsons Disease Essay1764 Words   |  8 PagesParkinson’s disease (PD) is a striatal dopamine deficiency disorder as a consequence of neuronal loss in the substania nigra. It is named after James Parkinson, a British apothecary, who first fully documented its physical signs in 1817. Since then, significant advances have been made in our understanding of characteristic pathophysiology as well as in the medical treatment of different stages of PD. An overview of condition features in terms of epidemiology, manifestations, diagnosis and diseaseRead MoreEssay on Parkinson’s Disease1305 Words   |  6 PagesParkinson’s Disease (PD) is a chronic neurological disease that effects about 329 per 100,000 people in the US. The average onset of this disease usually is for people over the age of 50, with the baby boomers getting older there may be an increase in this disease, as much as 9 million people worldwide. (Pawha 2010) Etiology The disease happens when the cells in the brain are damaged or stop-producing Dopamine, which helps with muscle movement, thus leaves those patients unable to control theirRead More Parkinsons Disease Essay1642 Words   |  7 PagesParkinsons Disease Parkinson’s Disease (PD), the shaking palsy first described by James Parkinson in 1817, is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder which affects in upwards of 1.5 million Americans. The disease begins to occur around age 40 and has incidence with patient age. One survey found that PD may affect 1% of the population over 60. Incidence seems to be more prominent in men, and tends to progress to incapacity and death over one or two decades. Clinical diagnosis of PD isRead MoreParkinson’s Disease Essay1260 Words   |  6 PagesParkinson’s Disease Parkinson’s Disease (PD), known for its degenerative abilities and debilitating affects, is an illness that affects approximately 1 million Americans. The cause of this disease has not been pinpointed, although strides have been made towards a cure. As our elderly population increases, so does our overwhelming need to find a suitable cure that may one day eliminate this disease. Concepts of PD After watching the video: My father, My Brother, and Me, viewable at www.pbsRead MoreParkinsons Disease Essay1504 Words   |  7 Pages Parkinsons Disease Parkinsons is an idiopathic, multifactorial neurodegenerative disease that attacks neurotransmitters in the brain called dopamine. Dopamine is concentrated in a specific area of the brain called the substantia nigra. The neurotransmitter dopamine is a chemical that regulates muscle movement and emotion. Dopamine is responsible for relaying messages between the substantia nigra and other parts of the brain to control body movement. The death of these neurotransmitters affectsRead MoreEssay Parkinsons Disease3763 Words   |  16 PagesParkinsons Disease In 1817, James Parkinson published his famous treatise: An Essay on the Shaking Palsy, describing the symptoms which now collectively bear his name. Although many scientists before his time had described various aspects of motor dysfunction (ataxia, paralysis, tremor) Parkinson was the first to collect them into a common syndrome; one which he believed formed a distinctive condition. His sixty-six page essay contained five chapters describing symptoms, differential diagnosesRead MoreEssay on Parkinson’s Disease2135 Words   |  9 PagesParkinson’s Disease Parkinson’s disease is a disease with a wide variety of disabilities recognizable as changes in appearance, posture, walking, and balance. In 1817, the English physician James Parkinson described these symptoms in his patients and has had his name become synonymous with the disease. In 1893 the substantia nigra of the basal ganglia was identified as an area of disease for Parkinson’s. Examination with the naked eye reveals a lack of black pigment in this portion of the brainstemRead MoreEssay on Parkinsons Disease4145 Words   |  17 Pages Parkinson’s Disease (from hereon PD) is an extrapyramidal disorder characterized primarily by massive idiopathic degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, resulting in greatly decreased levels of dopamine in the striatum. The diagnosis, which is essentially a clinical judgment due to the lack, thus far of a simple diagnostic test, has historically been on the basis of the presence of at least two of the three main features of PD: bradykinesia (or akinesia or hypokinesia), rigidity

Trade and Environment Law for Rio Declaration - myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theTrade and Environment Law for Rio Declaration. Answer: Introduction Rio Declaration, or is fully referred to as the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, was a very short document which had been produced back in 1992 at the UNCED, i.e. the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, which is also referred o as Earth Summit. This declaration covered 27 distinctive principles which had the intention of guiding the different countries in future sustainable development. This declaration had been signed by more than 170 nations. The significance of Rio Declaration lies in the rising awareness regarding the environment before the world. Through this declaration, remarkable efforts were placed in scientific contributions which acted as a catalyst in the environmental movement[1]. Principle 2 of Rio Declaration is the prevention principle, which in many ways, is the foundational principle of this declaration. This discussion is focused on highlighting principle 2 of this declaration, along with the manner in which this principle helps in solving the global environmental problems. In doing so, the discussion would elucidate principle 2 of this declaration, along with the role played by it. The discussion would then transcend to the manner in which this principle helps in solving environmental problems. In doing all this, reference would be made to the two leading cases of Trail Smelter Arbitration Arbitral Trib.[2] and Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom v. Albania)[3]. Contents of principle This declaration gives the principles which recognize the significance of environment preservation and puts forth the global guidelines for doing this. It presents the standards which the member nations of UN have to follow in creating their domestic and international environmental policies, and is also the basis of forming agreements as it relates to conservation and environment[4]. Principle 2 of this declaration provides that as per the UN Charter and the international law principles, the states have the sovereign right of exploiting their resources, based on their environmental and developmental policies. It further states that the states have the duty of making certain that the activities in their jurisdiction or under their control are not damaging the environment of other states or of such areas which are out of their national jurisdiction limits[5]. This prevention principle has three key components. These three are sovereignty over the natural resources, preventing transboundary environmental harm and preventing environmental harm which is beyond the natural jurisdiction. The sovereign dimension links this principle to the principle covered under Principle 3 which is of right of development, along with linking it to development set, in which the prevention dimension brings the intergeneration equity aspect covered under principle 3 together and also the principle 4, resulting in creation of environment set. There is a trend being seen in the prevention dimension being understood as a due diligence duty, in context of the environment, despite the location, which also includes the purely domestic activities. This principle presents that the states have to prevent damage to the environment and also have to work on reducing, controlling and limiting such activities which pose a risk of such damage or do actually cause damage[6]. A key point which has to be noted down regarding this principle is that principle 2 reflects customary international law, and yet it is not decisive. Regarding the activities which cause environmental degradation or pollution, this principle shoes the requirement of addressing other questions. For instance, what exactly is environmental damage, and what are the prohibited environmental damages. The responsibility imposed on the states to refrain from causing environmental damages in the areas which are out of their jurisdiction predates Stockholm Conference. Further, it is related to the states obligation of protecting the rights of other states within the territory, particularly the right of integrity and inviolability in war and peace. This obligation had been relied by arbitral tribunal in the often cited Trial Smelter case. In this case, it was provided that under the principles of international law, there was no such state which had the right of allowing the use of territory or using territory in a way which results in injury by fumes in another persons territory, where the case revolves around injury and serious results established through convincing and clear evidence[7]. The majority of writers have accepted this particular formulation as being a rule of customary international law. The example of this is the conclusion of Rapporteur of ILA Committee on the Legal Aspects of Environment after examining the state practice based on rule drawn in Trail Smelter case. This had also been cited by Judge de Castro, with apparent approval, in the dissenting statement made in the Nuclear Tests case[8]. In this particular case, ICJ had been asked by Australia to declare that carrying further atmospheric nuclear tests was no consistent with the rules which were applicable in the international law. Thus, it would have been unlawful so far it covers modification of physical condition over and of territory of Australia, along with the resources of seas and pollution of atmosphere. The precautionary principle is not something which has been present in the global environmental laws since a long time. Even then, it is a principle which has attained prominent position as being a topic of debate. This principle aims at anticipating and avoiding the environmental damages, before they even take place. This preventive measure is novel in varied manner and it ultimately services lower mitigation costs of the resulting environmental damages. Execution of precautionary principle continues to be tricky in economic sense, as it puts duty on those who form possible risks instead of posing responsibility on those who have done something in the past. It is both crucial and debatable feature that this principle shifts the burden of science based evidence from the ones who would slow down or restrict a possibly risky act to the ones who undertake the activity[9]. As stated earlier, there have been legal commentators who have raised the arguments that the precautionary principle approaches level of customary international law. There also has been pointed out that such status is not attained owing to the fact that the precautionary principle had been somewhat unclear and had been interpreted in different manners, and is not accepted on national level by much of world. One of the descriptions of this principle is that it is culturally framed and evolving concept which takes its indication from the changing notions regarding the suitable roles of politic, law, ethics, economics and science in the protection and management of environment in a proactive manner. As per James Cameron, who is one of the proponents of this principle, there are various legal principles where indirect precautionary measures were present. The most important one was the tort concept of strict liability where absolute liability in activities is provided; for instance burial of environmental waste being deemed as abnormally dangerous. The possibility of being held liable in a strict manner has been explained by Cameron when the individual acts in a manner which shows lack of reasonable care, and where the actors had to be more careful and had to consider the costs associated with the possible liabilities before they acted. Another substantial point raised by Cameron was that it is commonly criticized on the grounds of being uncertain, as this was something which could not be proved with 100% certainty[10]. Solving environmental problems This principle is of particular significance in context of solving the global environmental problems like loss of biodiversity and climate problem. Where this declaration or particularly its principle 2 is applied, the issues which threaten the environment can be prevented. To show the role of principle 2 in this context, two cases have been detailed here. The Trial Smelter Arbitration case involved a case in which US sought damages from Canada by bringing legal action against them in the court and also applied for injunction owing to air pollution in Washington, as a result of Trail Smelter, which was a Canadian company having its domicile in Canada. The rule which was applied in this case was covered under principle 2, where the states have the duty of protecting against harmful act of people within their jurisdiction at all times as being the states responsibility. The climate in Washington from period of 1925 to 1937 was damaged due to resultant effect of sulphur dioxide. The issue in this case was whether it was the responsibility of the state towards protecting the other states from the harmful ill effects by individuals at all times from within its jurisdiction[11]. The court held in this case that it was the responsibility of the state of protecting the other states from harmful acts by people at all times from its jurisdiction. The states do not have the right of using or allowing using the territory in a way which would cause damage owing to fumes to another or to the proper or other individuals as was covered under the laws of US and the international law principles. The arbitration, after looking into the facts of this case, stated that it was the responsibility of Canada, under the international law, regarding the conduct which was undertaken by the company of Canada. The responsibility was on the government of Canada to ensure that the conduct of Trail Smelter followed the obligations covered in Canada, in conformity with the international law. The company thus was required to stop causing any damage from fumes so long as the conditions present in Washington, of pollution, were present[12]. Another case which is of significance in this context is the Corfu Channel case. In this matter, the British warships were fired at by the Albanians which had been sailing across the North Corfu Channel. The Albanians stated that the foreign ships did not have the right of passing across the territorial waters of Albanian, without the previous permission and notification from authorities of Albania, when the UK protested the actions of forces of Albanian. UK put forth the argument that the states could see the ships for innocent purposes across the straits which were used in the international navigation. But this was refuted by Albanians on the grounds that the channel did not come under class F international highways, which presented the passage right, as it was meant for local traffic exclusively[13]. In this matter the court held that the geographical situation which connected two parts of high seas and the same not being used in international navigation was test of whether a chan nel had to be considered as one which belonged to class of international highways where passage could not be restricted by coastal state in peace times. The ICJ in this case had affirmed that it was not the obligation of each and every state to allow its territory to be used for acts which went against the rights of other states in a knowing manner[14]. Conclusion Thus, to bring this discussion to its conclusion, it can be stated that the purpose of this discussion has been fulfilled. Rio Declaration is a key document in context of environmental protection. The discussion provided a detail on the principle 2 of Rio Declaration in context of the role played by this preventive principle in making it the responsibility of the states to stop any such acts by their individuals or entities, which could injure or harm the environment of such area which is out of their jurisdiction. This principle effectively stops the nations from harming the environment of other nations. And this is the reason why it is deemed as the fundamental base of Rio Declaration. This point was established through the two cases, particularly the Trial Smelter Arbitration where Canada had to bear the impact of a company domiciled in Canada polluting the environment of US, as based on this principle, it was seen as a duty of Canada to control its entities. Thus, this principle is an effective principle in safeguarding the environment and also helps in solving the environmental problems, as and when they are raised. Bibliography Articles/ Books/ Journals Sands P, Peel J, and MacKenzie R, Principles of International Environmental Law (Cambridge University Press, 2012) Viuales JE, The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2015) Cases Australia v France (1974) ICJ Reports 253 Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom v. Albania) I.C.J. 1949 I.C.J 4. 22. Trail Smelter Arbitration Arbitral Trib., 3 U.N. Rep. Intl Arb. Awards 1905 (1941) Others Case Briefs, Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom v. Albania) (2018) https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/international-law/international-law-keyed-to-damrosche/chapter-17/corfu-channel-case-united-kingdom-v-albania-2/ Case Briefs, Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom v. Albania) (2018) https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/international-law/international-law-keyed-to-damrosche/chapter-17/corfu-channel-case-united-kingdom-v-albania-2/2/ Case Briefs, Trail Smelter Arbitration (United States v. Canada) (2018) https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/international-law/international-law-keyed-to-damrosche/chapter-18/trail-smelter-arbitration-united-states-v-canada/ Case Briefs, Trail Smelter Arbitration (United States v. Canada) (2018) https://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/international-law/international-law-keyed-to-damrosche/chapter-18/trail-smelter-arbitration-united-states-v-canada/2/ EClass, Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (2018) https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/PSPA121/Stockholm%20and%20Rio%20Declarations.pdf Facing Finance, The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (2018) https://www.facing-finance.org/en/database/norms-and-standards/the-rio-declaration-on-environment-and-development/ Stevens M, The Precautionary Principle in the International Arena (2002) https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1278context=sdlp Viuales JE, 1 The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (2015) https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law/9780199686773.001.0001/law-9780199686773-chapter-1#law-9780199686773-chapter-1-div3-2